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The evolution of living organisms is driven by random mutations in genetic material. Most mutations are detrimental, rendering the organism sick or incapacitated, and unable to survive long enough to reproduce.

However, occasionally, a mutation proves advantageous, allowing an organism to better adapt to its environment. These adaptations provide a competitive edge, enabling the organism to thrive, reproduce prolifically, and pass on its favorable traits to future generations.

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An Enzyme with a Taste for Alcohol

Clearly, our species' history is rich with such mutations. One such event took place around 10 million years ago somewhere in Africa, resulting in the development of the enzyme ADH4. This enzyme enabled our ancestors to metabolize alcohol more efficiently and safely.

Equipped with this new enzyme, early human ancestors gained access to a previously untapped food source: fermenting fruits scattered across the savanna floor, typically consumed only by fungi, bacteria, and insects. In an environment where food was scarce, these fermenting fruits offered a significant advantage. Not only were they easy to find, but their caloric content was enhanced by the presence of ethanol. It was likely through this evolutionary twist that humanity developed its enduring affinity for alcohol.

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The Vine and the Dawn of Viticulture

While grapes did not grow in sub-Saharan Africa, early hominids likely consumed other sugar-rich fruits such as figs or marula. However, it was the remarkable versatility of the grapevine (Vitis vinifera) that ultimately made it the ideal fruit for winemaking. All 8,000 to 10,000 grape varieties in existence today trace their origins back to this plant.

Humans are thought to have first encountered wild grapevines approximately 2 million years ago in the Middle East. After harvesting these wild grapes, they would have observed that fermentation occurred naturally within a few days, thanks to the yeast present on the grape skins. This serendipitous discovery marked the advent of wine proper.

Organized cultivation of grapevines, however, began much later. The initial domestication took place in the Transcaucasian region between the Black and Caspian Seas. To this day, wild and domesticated grapevines coexist in countries such as Georgia, Armenia, and Azerbaijan, where genetic diversity in vines is unparalleled.

Domesticated grapevines, unlike their wild counterparts, require constant care—irrigation, pruning, and protection from pests. By selectively breeding grapevines for desired traits, humans inadvertently weakened them against external threats. As a result, domesticated vines depend on settled farming communities rather than nomadic hunter-gatherers. It was the advent of agriculture, around 11,000 years ago, that laid the foundation for planned and coordinated viticulture.

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From the Earliest Wineries to the Spread of Viticulture

The oldest evidence of wine production dates back to around 6,000 BCE in modern-day Georgia. Archaeologists have uncovered large clay jars capable of holding over 300 liters of wine, equivalent to about 400 modern bottles. Such quantities indicate the existence of well-organized vineyards and advanced techniques for vine propagation, similar to those used today.

From Georgia, viticulture spread to Iran (5,000 BCE), Greece (4,500 BCE), and Sicily (4,000 BCE). The earliest known winery, dating to 4,100 BCE, was discovered in a cave in Armenia.

Interestingly, evidence of alcoholic fermentation predates winemaking. In China, researchers have found traces of a 9,000-year-old beverage made from a mix of fruits, honey, and rice. The invention of pottery during the Neolithic period revolutionized winemaking by allowing controlled fermentation and storage, which also increased the alcohol content—a feature much appreciated by early sedentary societies.

This higher alcohol content likely gave rise to wine’s spiritual significance. The altered states of consciousness induced by alcohol were interpreted as a connection to the divine. Before the biochemistry of fermentation was understood, the transformation of grape juice into wine was regarded as nothing short of miraculous.

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Wine as a Divine Gift

Wine quickly became seen as a divine gift, capable of inspiring affection, communion, and celebration. The ancient Greeks credited Dionysus with its discovery, elevating him to the status of a fertility god. The Romans worshipped his counterpart, Bacchus, whose harvest festivals, the Bacchanalia, were legendary.

In Persia, a fabled queen discovered wine when she drank fermented grape juice in an attempt to end her life, only to find herself unexpectedly invigorated. For the ancient Egyptians, wine held ceremonial importance, often depicted in funerary art as part of rituals for eternal rest. Rare wines, such as the red Shedeh, were considered sacred.

In Judaism, wine has played a central role since biblical times, symbolizing sanctity in rituals like the Kiddush. Christianity later adopted wine as a symbol of Christ’s blood in the Eucharist. Although Islam traditionally prohibits alcohol, its Golden Age saw significant advancements in wine production and distillation for medicinal purposes, thanks to pioneering chemists like Geber.

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Mediterranean Expansion and the Roman Legacy

Viticulture spread across the Mediterranean during the Bronze Age, reaching what is now Portugal through Phoenician and Greek traders. The Romans elevated viticulture further, establishing many of Europe’s current wine regions and introducing innovations such as aging and systematic classification.

Roman texts, including those of Pliny the Elder, detail practices like vine grafting. Genetic studies reveal that many modern European grape varieties, such as Syrah and Pinot Noir, are direct descendants of Roman cultivars.

After Rome’s fall, the Catholic Church preserved and expanded viticultural knowledge throughout the Middle Ages, with monastic orders playing a crucial role. Portugal later became a key player in global wine trade during the Age of Exploration, introducing wine to Africa, the Americas, and Asia.

In the 19th century, the global wine industry faced its greatest challenge: the phylloxera epidemic. Thankfully, advances in agricultural science and grafting techniques saved the industry from devastation.

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Wine in a Changing World

Today, wine is produced on every continent except Antarctica and has become one of the world’s most valuable agricultural products. Emerging markets, particularly in Asia, have embraced wine, reinforcing its status as a universal beverage.

However, traditional wine regions face challenges from climate change. While cooler European areas have benefited from warming temperatures, Mediterranean vineyards have demonstrated remarkable resilience. Yet the question remains: how hot is too hot for the vine?

To adapt, historic regions like Bordeaux are experimenting with heat-resistant varieties, including Portugal’s inimitable Touriga Nacional. Elsewhere, vineyards are being planted at altitudes exceeding 1,000 meters.

Despite these challenges, many renowned producers remain committed to wines that faithfully reflect their terroir. Some terroirs are minuscule, as in Romanée-Conti or Château Lafleur, limiting the flexibility to adapt to new varieties or locations.

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Looking to the Future with a Commitment to Values

Studies predict that Europe’s vineyard-suitable areas could expand by nearly 50% by 2100, potentially making regions like southern Scandinavia, the Baltic, and the English Channel new wine hubs. This increased competition could challenge established countries like Portugal and Italy.

At Quinta da Alameda, we champion ethical and sustainable practices to safeguard our heritage and adapt to an uncertain future. While tomorrow’s vineyards may look different, we are committed to ensuring the enduring quality of our wines. With us, you’ll continue to savour the evolutionary gift of ADH4. Cheers!